Bullying Laws Will Prevent Future Suicides free essay sample

Are you, your friend, or a family member a victim of cyber bullying, and want to put an end to it? Today in our society bullying continues to grow, and the bullies are not being punished. In Jonathon Strickland’s article, â€Å"What Should Be Done about Cyber Bullying?† he claims that bullying laws won’t stop bully’s, adult mentoring is needed to change students behavior, and that laws won’t prevent suicides or undue suicides. Although he makes a few good points, I still find myself at disagreement with him. Many students fear being punished. Adults can be perfect role models, but that doesn’t mean kids will want to follow their footsteps. Laws will not bring someone back from suicide, but it sure can prevent suicide from occurring. People do and will break laws, we are not perfect, but nobody should get away with committing a crime. People question whether laws with consequences against bullies can actually make a difference in today’s issue on bullying. We will write a custom essay sample on Bullying Laws Will Prevent Future Suicides or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In Jonathon Strickland’s opinion, â€Å"Anonymity and distance can inspire people to say and do things online that they would never do in person. I’m fairly sure that laws against cyber bullying won’t change that.† It can inspire people, but it also can strike fear in someone if they know they are being monitored online. If in our society we can create a way to track where the messages come from, which I’m sure our law enforcement is capable of doing, and then I’m positive students would think twice before they hit send. Students often act different at home than at school. At home they try to be who their parents want them to be, while at school they get to be who they want to be. If a bully is thought to be an angel by their parents they could fear being punished in regards of how their parents would react. I know that I always think before I act because the one and only person I am scared of is my mother. I have met many other students who don’t fear administration or authorities, but when it comes to their parents they are afraid. Not everyone is afraid of breaking laws, obviously or else we wouldn’t need law enforcement. When it comes to student though, they majority of them don’t understand the severity of their actions. They think it’s funny, and they think it makes them look tough in front of other students. If they are taught in school about laws on bullying and what the victims suffer, then they will grow up with the knowledge of knowing that bullying is wrong and being afraid to break the law. As we grow up we are taught that adults have authority over us. Our parents, teachers, doctors, etc. but they can only do so much to mentor us and punish us. I have the greatest parents and have been given everything I ever wanted and/or needed, but that doesn’t mean I’m not capable of becoming a bully. That’s not what I was taught to do, but it’s a personal choice. I could have self-esteem issues that I take out on other girls by trying to make them feel like they’re less than me, or be mad at my best friend and spread a rumor about her, none of which I have ever seen an adult do. Adults should set an example to students of how to act towards other humans, but no one is perfect. I don’t think it’s fair to say that it’s up to adults to mentor students in order to change how students act towards each other. In the end, if a student wants to be a bully there going to do it, no matter what they were taught, and they need to have c onsequences to face. I agree that no law will ever bring someone back after committing suicide, but I strongly believe that there are laws that can be made to prevent future attempts at suicide. Victims need to know that society does care about them, and that they are not in this alone. In â€Å"Victims Find Little Escape from Cyber Bullies,† by Aaron Levin he mentions, â€Å"Kids think that if it’s online, it doesn’t count.† It’s true, it’s so easy to get carried away through a text, email, and instant messages, etc. because you can’t see what damage you’re causing to that person. Especially between friends, they say many things they don’t mean in the moment that they are upset. A student can be sending another student several messages in an hour and not think it’s a big deal, but little does that student know how hurtful they were because by the time they realize it the victim has already cut him/herself, overdosed on pills, or made many other attempts at suicides. The bully can argue that it was never their intention to cause this much damage to the victim, but that is no excuse for their actions. If victims are aware of laws out there to help protect them they could possibly feel more comfortable reporting that they are being bullied, or at least try to seek for help in dealing with the emotions it causes. Laws can help a victim think twice before they go through with taking their own life. â€Å"Bullying is occurring at alarming rates in the U.S and the long-term effects of being bullied can be severe.† (Bullying Statistics and Long-term Effects by National Center for Education Statistics). If there are no laws made against cyber bullying we are going to continue to lose many students, and we will continue to be helpless citizens. Jonathon Strickland said, â€Å"I think most legislative approaches to curbing cyber bullying are a waste of time and money.† No, you know what a waste of time is? Sitting here while there are kids out there suffering over bullying, and nothing is being put into action. In many cases, parents don’t even know that there kids are being bullied until it’s too late. Bullying happens every day, and every day there is a kid who feels as if everyone were against him/her. Every day there is a victim who gives up on staying strong and the thought of suicide crosses their mind. If your kid was a victim of bullying wouldnâ⠂¬â„¢t you want to have a law that would let him/her know that society does care about him/her? Or would you rather wait until it’s too late, and you’re sitting in your kid’s room holding his/her dead body in your arms?

Cross

Cross The problem discussed in this case is related to such a field as cross-cultural management. The main issue is that John Higgins might have become too attached to the Japanese culture, its values, and workplace practices. Furthermore, this change in his attitudes began to affect his business decisions and some of them were not effective.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cross-cultural Management: Japanese Culture and Its Workplace Practices specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, he refused to terminate an employee who failed to improve his performance. Higgins’ justification for this decision is that this worker has been loyal to the company while loyalty is essential for Japanese organizations. Very often European or American managers do not know much about the customs and traditions of non-Western people (Kawar 2012, p. 105). Therefore, they have to adjust the new business environment. However, this sit uation is quite different because John Higgins immersed himself in the customs and traditions of Japan. One of the main risks is that he could understand the Japanese culture too literally. Higgins could simply overlook the possibility that the values and priorities of local people could be changing. These are the main aspect of this problem. There are several possible approaches to this situation. One of the possible strategies is to move Higgins to a different position or even to a different country. One should bear in mind that in many cases, companies choose to rotate expatriates. They let them stay in a certain country only for a limited period (Jonsson Kalling 2006). The main rationale for this policy is to prevent them becoming too accustomed to the values or norms of local culture. Furthermore, this strategy is helpful for sharing information or best practices among various divisions of the corporation (Jonsson Kalling 2006). This is one of the strategies that can be adopt ed. The main limitation of this approach is that the Japanese division of Weaver Pharmaceutical can lose a very valuable employee. Moreover, the corporation will have to spend a significant amount of time to find a person, who can substitute Higgins. This is one of the problems faced by multinational corporations (Bozionelos 2009). Furthermore, the senior management can prompt Higgins and Prescott to discuss the specific cases on which they disagree. Each of them should provide evidence to support his position. In such a way, they can resolve their conflict. However, it is also possible that their disagreement can turn into animosity. This is one of the pitfalls that should be avoided.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It seems that the senior executive should closely examine the actions and decisions of Higgins. Provided that some of his decisions really run against the long-term interests of a company, the senior management should tell Higgins that he should focus on the objectives that a company sets. For instance, one of these objectives is efficiency. Therefore, it is not reasonable for an organization to retain an employee provided that he/she cannot cope with the requirements set by the management. This approach is useful for identifying and eliminating possible limitations in the work of John Higgins. Moreover, senior management can improve the functioning of the Japanese division. On the whole, this discussion indicates that multinational corporations can face a great number of challenges. One of their main tasks is to make sure that an expatriate can understand the values or customs of local people. However, they should remain impartial while taking business decisions. These are the main aspects that can be identified. References Bozionelos, N 2009, Expatriation outside the Boundaries of the Multinational Corporation: A Study with Exp atriates Nurses in Saudi Arabia. Web. Jonsson, A. Kalling, T 2006, Knowledge, Organizational Context, and Institutional Forces: Knowledge Sharing in IKEA and SCA. Web. Kawar, T 2012, ‘Cross-cultural Differences in Management’. International Journal of Business and Social Science, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 105-111. Web. Cross Introduction Various reasons explain why people from diverse countries have different modes of communication. In fact, the manners in which people communicate have greater influence on their daily activities.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Cross-culture communication specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Essentially, the mode of communication also determines the conduct, perceptions as well as activities undertaken in everyday life (Gudykunst Ting-Toomey, 2008). The differences in the modes and styles of communication are due to diverse cultures of the people from different countries. The understanding of the differences in cultural aspects is critical in eliminating the prejudices, misconceptions and discrimination that may exist among individuals from different countries. In addition, understanding the concept of cultural differences creates and enhances the mutual respect among individuals in settings with dual cult ures (Hall, 2000). The aim of this report is to evaluate the concept of different communication cultures through the application of Hall’s high and low-context model of culture. Hall’s View of Culture According to Hall (1990), culture is the way people live. In other words, culture is the manner in which people interact with immediate environment. Further, culture comprises on the manner people in the society behave, their principles, verbal communication and mind-set as well as material values. Hall (1990) described culture as intuitive. In this context, culture controls the lives of people unknowingly. In other words, culture acts as imperceptible control system working in the minds of individuals. According to this view, people acknowledge their norms only after being exposed to a different way of life. The differences existing between the two cultures enable individuals to internalise the tenets of their customs and norms (Hall, 1990).Advertising Looking fo r report on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, one cannot know that there is another language unless exposed to a dissimilar environment where people communicate differently. Once exposed, the individual appreciates the importance of their language. In addition, members of the society acknowledge incorporate and appreciate the cultural aspects and act within the definitions of the societal expectations. In other words, the actions and behaviours of the members of the society must be within what is culturally acceptable (Hall, 1990). The societal culture also defines rewards for the violations of societal norms. According to Hall (1990), cultural aspects of all societies fall within the low-context to high-context cultures. Context in this case means the information concerning an event. The beliefs, norms and practices of all societies around the world are described by factors that fall within the scale of low-context to high-context cultures (Kim, Pan, Park, 2008). In other words, traditions of various countries can be related to one another through the application of factors that are found within the scale of low-context to high-context cultures. High versus low-context cultures Halls cultural scale is critical in the understanding of the existing national cultures of various countries taking into consideration both their cultural and communication values (1990). In fact, issues concerned with culture both at the national and local level are taken into consideration. Besides, cultural issues also consist of the individualism and collectivism attributes (Hofstede, 2008). On the other hand, communication styles are methods of transferring information that is unique to a given country. Communication styles in HC Vs LC cultures The form of interactions, societal chain of command and strong norms that govern behaviours affects the modes of transferring information in high-cont ext societies. In other words, the communication styles are influenced by the basic cultural characteristics of the society (Mattock, 2003).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Cross-culture communication specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More High context societies are characterised by the closeness of human relationships, highly structured social hierarchy and presence of strong behavioural norms. Under such situations, the information contains the hidden meaning, which does not need outright expression or explanation either in writing or verbally. In other words, high-context cultures are characterised by information having an inward or hidden meaning the members of the society automatically understand (Mattock, 2003). When passing information in high-context cultures, the listener is expected to understand some of the underlying issues without subsequent explanation. However, such skills require background knowledge on t he issue. According to Hall (1990), information in high-context societies is internalised or presented in substantial framework while very little information is conveyed in implicit structure. In other words, information that is openly sent out in implied form is very modest in high-context cultures. Besides, people are linear in their mode of speaking. The speaker is rarely intermittent. Essentially, communication is oblique, unclear, pleasant-sounding, reserved and discreet (Pakiam, 2007). Greater emphasis is placed in the non-verbal aspects of communication. Conversely, in low context cultures, meaning of the information is unambiguously entrenched in speech. Explanations are often needed in case of misunderstandings. Hall (1990) indicates that the information is in the transmitted form to compensate for the missing parts in the context. Besides, in low-context cultures, communication is usually straightforward, consequential, stable and sometimes without stopping the usage of wo rds.Advertising Looking for report on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Cultural issues in high vs. lows of Business Communications Business communication in Finland Finland is one of the countries that exhibit high-context cultures. Finland has methods in which formal transfer of information is carried out. Traditionally, Finnish language has been perceived as reserved, longish and slow moving (Lewis, 2005). The characteristic of the language has been demonstrated in the communication culture. Finnish managers often communicate with employees and fellow managers in a modest form and do not encourage interruptions during speeches. In most cases, the information provided contains only the framework within which the task has to be carried out. The expectation is that the receiver understands the meaning or has the basic idea of what is expected. The form of business communication is demonstrated in high-context cultures (Zaidman, 2001). Besides, Finns are good listeners. Most of the time, the information is internalised upon reception. In the current corp orate world where information is digitised, Finns get it easier with coded speeches particularly the information being transferred through the Internet. However, the modes of business communication styles have changed with most people engaging in more proactive conversations (Zaidman, 2001). Employees can now interrupt their managers and ask questions during and after the presentations. Business communication in Japan Japanese corporate communication approach is within the traditions. For instance, in Toyota, the language used to pass information can be said to be agglutinated. In other words, the language has words that contain several elements meaning similar thing (Maynard, 2007). The particles in the words not only express the relations in the grammar but also the individual thoughts of the conveyor. Japanese corporate language is highly characterised by appreciation and respect. In fact, the language is full of regard and humble classification making the form of communication m ost distinct. In addition, the language has several ways through which politeness can be expressed (Tokuhiro Hiki, 2005). Based on the characteristics of the language, the form of communication in Japanese has a tendency of being high-context. Japan is placed at the top of the high-context cultures because of the communication style. In fact, Japanese communication procedures have all the attributes exhibited by high-context cultures. In Japanese language, the business information is oblique and digressive, few words are applied and dependencies on relative signal are exhibited (Pryor, Butler, Boehringer, 2005). In addition, there is low rate of interruptions as well as respect for long silences. Business communication in India The form of business communication in India is quite complex not only due to the several languages used to pass information but also due to the complexity of the recipients (Varma, 2004). Indian workers are more reactive and active. Actually, Indians do not take time to listen and internalise the information. Indian corporate world is characterised by the use of combined languages, which prove to be complicated in carrying out daily business conversation. India has over twenty -two official languages. Each of the languages has a distinct meaning when it is used to communicate business information. The mix and complexity in the application of diverse languages in daily business conversations make India’s communication culture be rated as low-context culture (Kapoor, Hughes, Baldwin, Blue, 2003). The major role of language in India is to maintain harmony and bring about good relations among individuals. Language is actually not used to convey exact knowledge. The form of communication culture is also demonstrated in the business conversations where information is haphazardly provided. Besides, Indian workers are dialogue-oriented (Kapoor et al. 2003). In fact, most businesses prefer providing direct information. The characterist ics make the communication culture in India be ranked as low-context. Business communication in Indonesia Indonesia is also one of the countries that are found within the low-context cultures. The form of business communication is characterised by extroversion, interruptions and assertiveness (Ferraro, 2005). In Indonesia, business letters exhibit extrovert in almost all sentences. Business managers are also assertive in their speech. Besides, interruptions are normal during presentations where employees tend to seek immediate clarity in case there is a misunderstanding. Like India, there is no homogeneity in the business language. Besides, there is no room for the internalisation of the information. Moreover, attentiveness to understand the information is deficient since the information provided is more direct. The characteristics place the Indonesian communication traditions under the low-context cultures. In Indonesia, low-context cultural oriented tendencies are highly observed in business communications involving contracts. Communications involving contracts are normally simple and explicit. Even though there are variations in the communications involving such business transactions depending on the language used, the information is shared and understood across the board. In other words, business conversations involving simple contracts are commonly understood due to the simplicity in which they are conveyed (Chaney, 2005). Essentially, communication in low context cultures is straight, accurate, impressive and open as well as founded on faithful thoughts and purpose. References Chaney, L 2005, Intercultural business communication, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Chella, G 2007, The changing face of Indian work culture, New Delhi, The Hindu Business Online. Ferraro, GP 2005, The cultural dimension of international business, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Goodman, R Refsing, K 2002, Ideology and practice in modern Japan. Routledge, London. Gudyk unst, WB Ting-Toomey, S 2008, Culture and interpersonal communication, Sage, Newbury Park, CA. Hall, E 1990, Understanding cultural differences: Germans, French and Americans. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth. Hofstede, G 2008, A summary of my ideas about national culture differences, McGraw-Hill, Berkshire, England. Kapoor, S, Hughes, P, Baldwin, JR Blue, J 2003, â€Å"The relationship of individualism-collectivism in India and the United States,† International Journal of Intercultural Relations, vol.27 no.2, pp.683–700. Kim, D, Pan, Y Park, HS 2008, â€Å"High- versus low-context culture: a comparison of Chinese, Korean, and American cultures,† Psychology and Marketing, vol.15 no.6, pp.507–521. Lewis, RD 2005, Finland, cultural lone wolf, Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME. Mattock, J 2003, Cross-cultural business cimmunication: the essential guide to international business, Kogan Page, London. Maynard, SK 2007, Japanese communication language and though t in context, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Pakiam, A 2007, â€Å"Face-saving† in cross-cultural communication, New Delhi, The Hindu Business Line. Pryor, B, Butler, J Boehringer, K 2005, â€Å"Communication apprehension and cultural context: a comparison of communication apprehension in Japanese and American students,† North American Journal of Psychology, vol.7 no.2, pp.247–252. Richardson, RM Smith, SW 2007, â€Å"The influence of high/low-context culture and power distance on choice of communication media: students’ media choice to communicate with professors in Japan and America,† International Journal of Intercultural Relations, vol.31 no.4, pp.479–501. Sen, A 2005, The argumentative Indian: writings on Indian history, culture and identity, Penguin Books, London. Tokuhiro, Y Hiki, S 2005, â€Å"of mora phonemes on Japanese word accent,† Logico-Linguistic Society of Japan, vol.42 no.3 pp. 243–250. Varma, PK 2004 , Being Indian: the truth about why the 21st century will be India’s, Penguin, Delhi. Zaidman, N 2001, â€Å"Cultural codes and language strategies in business communication,† Management Communication Quarterly, vol.14 no.3, pp.408-441. Cross Communication is one of the essential parts of people’s lives. Modern society can be characterized by extensive interaction of people from different countries and different continents. Boundaries diminish, and people start visiting not only neighboring areas, but fly across oceans and learn about different cultures, gain new experiences.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cross-Cultural Communication in Tourism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, despite such freedom in terms of overcoming distances, people still have difficulties with cross-cultural communications, since each nation gained particular social peculiarities due to many historic, social, geographic and many others factors. Fortunately, people has started considering this issue, thus, there are a lot of approaches to solving this problem, and many researchers suggest several ways of overcoming difficulties. First, it is necessary to point out t hat there are several definitions and understandings to the very notion of communication. In 1960s researchers suggested that communication is interchanging of meanings via different â€Å"symbols and signs† (Reisinger 2009, p.166). But in 1990s scholars suggested a new understanding of this notion, which is confined to the ability of people to share ideas and reach the same opinion, i.e. people not only communicate some idea but try to convince the interlocutor to accept this idea, thus, the result of communication is shared idea (Reisinger 2009, p.167). Though, this definition cannot be precise, since it is difficult or even impossible, and hardly necessary to make people share the same meaning. The major purpose and result of communication is to transfer one’s idea to other people, so that they could understand it and adequately react. Unfortunately, sometimes people even within the same language and culture fail to implement this purpose of communication and in thi s case misunderstanding occurs, which can lead to different negative consequences. Admittedly, communication among people of different languages and cultures faces much more obstacles. When considering cross-cultural communication, researchers define such difficulties as: differences in verbal and non-verbal communication (Reisinger and Turner 2003, p.18). Differences in verbal communication emerge due to the peculiarities of language, for instance, people may be confused by difference in words sequence or sounds, moreover, some scholars define that difficulties are also caused by â€Å"variations in vocabulary† (when the same word denotes several notion or vice versa) and â€Å"linguistic relativity† (variety of dialects or jargons and accents) (Reisinger and Turner 2003, p.18).Advertising Looking for essay on business communication? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Differences in non-verbal communicati on are caused by movements (gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, nodding), space (personal space), touch (â€Å"the meaning of touch†), time (â€Å"time orientations, time systems, time perceptions†), voice (â€Å"fast/slow†, â€Å"loud/soft†, etc.), and even other â€Å"non-verbal codes† (body odour, blushing, tears, body shape, skin colour, clothing, cosmetics, etc.) (Reisinger and Turner 2003, p.18-19). Thus, there are many constituents building up intercultural misunderstanding, verbal and non-verbal, where each of these elements play significant role and cannot be excluded. After defining the main factors causing difficulties in cross-cultural communication, it is possible to consider this issue in terms of tourism. Many researches pay quite a lot attention to this issue. Thus, Theobald (1998) considers the problem in terms of tourism, and assumes that the majority of tourists feel like (and very often are treated as) strangers, and with out knowing a language they feel frustrated, and this is the main reason why a lot of tourist choose countries where people speak the same language, moreover, tourist may be also confused with different traditions and ways of communication of the host country (Theobald 1998, p.133). However, Cohen (2004), considering difficulties in cross-cultural communication, notes that often tourists visit a country without knowing the language of the host people, and in this case, especially when visiting some countries of Africa and Oceania they use non-verbal means of communication, i.e. gestures, which are universal in nature and explicit (Cohen 2004, p.220). Cohen also denotes that such non-verbal communication often becomes an amusing game (e.g. when tourists try to buy some food using gestures) which â€Å"serves to create and express a mutual interest and sympathy† (Cohen 2004, p.220). Thus, there are evidences which prove that non-verbal communication is slightly superior to the verbal communication and in some particular cases can become the only means of reaching understanding. While considering the issue of cross-cultural communication and tourism it is necessary to note that the central factor of this problem is difference in cultures and traditions. Admittedly, different nations had their history and their development which constructed this or that norm.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cross-Cultural Communication in Tourism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thus, within the same culture people should follow the main principles, for instance, there are several types of appearance and postures appropriate for different occasions (Hinde 1975, p.248). Of course, different nations have their particular requirements, thus, in Arabic countries women should be dressed in special gowns in the street or in public, whereas western women have less restrictions, though it will be inappropriate to c ome to opera in jeans or shorts. Different nations have their perception of politeness. Thus, European people knock into the door before coming into the room, while Americans don’t consider this to be polite, rather inappropriate, and Esposito et al. (2007) provide historical and cultural background of this peculiarity of American culture (Esposito et al. 2007, p.87). Reisinger (2009) provides analysis of the main cultural peculiarities of different nations, thus, the research points out that different people have different attitude even to the way they look at each other, and western people prefer to look into the eyes of the interlocutor, and regard a person who avoids looking into eyes being indifferent to the conversation or even rude, and, on the contrary, eastern people prefer not looking into the eyes, and regard people looking into eyes rude and aggressive (Reisinger 2009, p.172). Thus, many slight or significant peculiarities in cultures of different people exist, wh ich can lead to misunderstanding. Despite numerous factors causing difficulties in cross-cultural communications, there is quite simple way out. First of all, people should be tolerant and attentive to the culture of different people. It is impossible to consider own culture to be the most appropriate and adequate, while ignoring other people’s traditions. Reisinger 2009 raises quite important question concerning tourism and inter-cultural communication, which is whether tourist should assimilate to the host people following their traditions or host people should take into account tourists’ culture peculiarities (Reisinger 2009, p.196). This disputable question should be regarded in terms of principles of mutual respect and understanding. Before visiting a country tourists should learn some details about cultural peculiarities of people living in that country, and try to follow their traditions or at least try to avoid violating major cultural rules or traditions.Adver tising Looking for essay on business communication? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, the question of cross-cultural communication difficulties remains open, since there are many ways of considering this problem. However, to avoid inter-cultural misunderstanding tourists should learn not only the language of the host country but its main rules and traditions. Thus, many scholars provide various evidences proving that non-verbal communication plays significant role in reaching understanding between people of different languages and cultures. Reference List Argyle,M 1975, ‘Non-Verbal Communication in Human Social Interaction’, in Non-Verbal Communication, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, pp. 243-268. Cohen, E 2004 Contemporary Tourism: Diversity and Change, Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, Netherlands. Esposito, A, Bratanic, M, Keller, E, Marinaro, M 2007, Fundamentals of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and the Biometric Issue, IOS Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Reisinger,Y Turner, LW 2003, Cross-Cultural Behaviour in Tourism: Conc epts and Analysis, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, United Kingdom. Reisinger, Y 2009, ‘Cultural Influences on Intercultural Communication’, in International Tourism: Cultures and Behaviour, Butterworth-Heinemann, Jordan Hill, Oxford, United Kingdom, Chapter 7, pp. 165-198. Theobald, WF 1998, Global Tourism, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, United Kingdom. Cross Focus of the Study Globalisation has opened up borders and brought people from different cultures together. Modern technologies have improved transportation and communication and encouraged expansion of corporations to overseas markets. Economic cooperation between governments has also risen in the globalisation age.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on Cross-culture Project Cooperation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People from different cultures now work together in workplace environments that encourage diversity in relation to â€Å"communication styles, values, and cultural norms†1. Moreover, nowadays, firms are increasingly investing in international projects because of the high returns associated with such ventures. However, a number of constraint factors related to overseas business environments affect international projects. These factors fall into four categories: economic, socio-cultural, political, and technological2. The proposed research study will focus on how cultural differences affect international project management. The study will examine the place of culture in the management of overseas projects. It will also explore how cultural differences hamper cross-cultural cooperation within organisations. The teams involved in overseas projects are usually drawn from different cultures. Typically, the team members speak different languages and have dissimilar customs and beliefs. If these differences are not well managed, the employees may fail to work together as a team leading to project failure. Literature Review Studies in international project management reveal that cultures give rise to different management approaches because people often make decisions based on culturally defined values3. This implies that national cultures shape the behaviours of managers working on international projects. Schneider and Meyer (2006) describe the effect of cultural differences on organ isational performance4. They state that team members find it hard to work in a different cultural environment because of their unfamiliarity with foreign management approaches.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this regard, for a project to be successful, foreign workers must adapt to the host country’s national and organisational cultures5. A failure to recognise and abide by the cultural customs of the host country can impede cooperation and lead to project failure. Inappropriate management (cultural diversity) practices have also been associated with project failures6. For construction projects, cultural differences affect various stages of the project cycle, including tendering, negotiation, and implementation phases7. Moreover, cultural differences affect communication and collaboration among team members. Gray and Larson (2003) posit that cultural differences cause language barrier, which impedes effective communication within organisations8. Additionally, it is difficult to translate a message without it losing its original meaning. Besides language, religious differences can also hamper cooperation. A study Kirby and Richard (2000) found that employees do not prefer to work on sites perceived to have religious significance to the locals9. Thus, cultural differences have a big influence on site selection for international projects. On their part, Ling and Hoi (2006) found that international construction firms face a cultural risk when working on overseas projects (in Singapore and India) because of the differences in culture10. They conclude that in order for a project to be successful, the team members must be able to understand the local culture. However, they note that cooperation may still be a problem even when people speak the same language due to differences in working methods and mindsets among the workers.Advertisin g We will write a custom proposal sample on Cross-culture Project Cooperation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Ling and Hoi (2006) recommend that team members should familiarize themselves with the various aspects of the local culture (Indian) before the project commences11. Kwak (2002) writes that culture, in the context of international project, is a critical success/failure factor12. If project managers are unfamiliar with the cultural diversity within the team, they may assign responsibilities to the wrong groups. As a result, a project may incur additional costs or overrun its schedule. Moreover, if a project’s objectives do not reflect the culture of the customer(s), it may face stiff opposition leading to its termination. Thus, a project manager should take into account the customs, values, and traditions of the team members from the outset13. Moreover, he or she must ensure that the project’s objectives reflect the culture of the clients to avoid opposition and possible project rejection. A survey by Chen, Partington, and Qiang (2009) that involved UK and Chinese project managers establishes that the use of cross-cultural management does not always translate to project success because of the differences that exist between the Chinese and Western management practices14. In another study, Gunhan and Arditi (2005) explore the factors affecting international project management among US corporations15. The study establishes that cultural differences among the workers increase the risk of project failure. In contrast, Pheng and Leong (2000) examine the various aspects of cross-cultural collaboration in international projects16.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They establish that factors such as â€Å"organisational and national culture and cross-cultural communication, conflict resolution, and negotiation skills† influence international project management17. Based on a case study involving Chinese (YRTSB) and American (APC) firms, the authors argue that the Chinese culture (corporate) has a big influence on decision-making. Cultural differences hamper communication, which create misunderstandings between business partners. Moreover, the absence of cross-culture conflict resolution mechanisms contributes to the failure of joint-venture projects. In particular, in the case study, the authors find a big difference between the Chinese and American negotiation styles. They conclude that project managers (American) should seek to understand the management style of their partner company (Chinese) in order to work together amicably. On their part, Chen et al., (2010) explore the project managers’ approaches in cross-cultural team m anagement18. They establish that cross-cultural differences exist between UK and Chinese managers with regard to their management approaches. While the UK managers focus on safety, their Chinese counterparts are largely driven by commercial interests. Moreover, Ashkanasy, Hartel, and Daus (2002) in their study, establish that, in practice, transferring managerial practices is not possible because of cultural differences19. In this study, cultural differences were found to hamper cooperation between French and Dutch companies in areas of RD. Thus, differences in organisational and national cultures can affect cooperation in projects involving culturally diverse staff. Initial Research Questions Based on the literature review above, five research questions will direct the proposed study. These include: What is the effect of cultural differences on the success of projects involving culturally diverse teams? How can foreign project managers manage multicultural groups in their teams? W hat cultural dimensions affect international project management? Can the effect of culture on project management be generalised or is it specific to certain situations? How does the employee’s culture and behaviours affect project outcomes? Justification From the literature review, it is evident that few studies have examined the cultural issue as a critical success factor for international projects. Most of the studies have focused on the effect of cultural differences on project performance, communication, and management. Therefore, there is need to identify the general cultural characteristics that affect project success in the international arena. Although cultural conditions are often specific, some situations cut across all cultures. Methodology A study’s methodology encompasses research design, sample selection (participants), materials/equipment, and data collection/analysis approach. Research Design The study will employ a case study approach to examine the e ffect of cultural differences on project performance and management. It will also involve a mixed methods research design (qualitative and quantitative methods). Creswell (2009) defines the ‘mixed methods design’ as a method that integrates qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection and analysis20. In particular, the proposed study will utilise the interviewing method to collect data from culturally diverse staff members of an international construction project. A cross-cultural analysis using qualitative and quantitative techniques will reveal the impact of the cultural differences on the project’s performance. Sample Selection The participants in the proposed study will include staff members (both past and current) working on an international project. Project managers will also participate in this case study. The convenience sampling technique will be used to select the participants. This will ensure that as many people as possible participate i n the case study. Data Collection The study will involve personal interviews with the participants. Questionnaires containing structured and semi-structured questions will be used to collect data. During the interview, qualitative data will also be collected using researcher observation to complement the quantitative data obtained from the questionnaires. Justification for Research Methodology The aim of the proposed study is to highlight the significance of cultural differences in a project success. Culture determines the management style of the project manager, which, in turn, influences the project’s outcomes. Additionally, cultural diversity among project managers and staff influences their negotiation, communication, cooperation, and conflict resolution skills. Consequently, there is need to identify the specific aspects of cultural diversity that impede project performance. In this regard, a case study approach will help identify the specific cultural factors (success f actors) that affect cooperation among culturally diverse groups in a team. Convenience sampling is appropriate for this case study, as, according to Yin (2003), the subjects are not similar and thus, cannot be sampled randomly21. Time Schedule Bibliography Ashkanasy, Neal, Hartel, Charmine and Daus, Catherine, ‘Diversity and emotion: the new frontiers inorganizational behaviour research’, Journal of Management, vol. 28, Issue 1, 2002, pp. 307-338 Chen, Gilad, Kirkman, Bradely, Kim, Kwanghyun, Farh, Crystal and Tangirala, Subrahmaniam, ‘When does cross-cultural motivation enhance expatriate effectiveness? A multilevel investigation of the moderating roles of subsidiary support and cultural distance’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 53, Issue 2, 2010, pp. 1110-1130. Chen, Ping and Partington, David, ‘An interpretive comparison of Chinese and Western conceptions of relationships in construction project management work’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 22, Issue 3, 2004, pp. 397–406 Chen, Ping, Partington, David, and Qiang, Maoshan, ‘Cross-Cultural Understanding of Construction Project Managers’ Conceptions of Their Work’, Journal of Construction and Engineering Management, vol. 135, Issue 6, 2009, pp. 477–487. Chevrier, Sylvie, ‘Cross-cultural management in multinational project groups’, Journal of  World Business, vol. 38, Issue 1, 2003, pp. 141-149 Creswell, John, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods  Approaches (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 2009). Dadfar, Hossein and Gustavsson, Peter, ‘Competition by effective management of cultural diversity’, International Studies of Management and Organization, vol. 22, Issue 4, pp. 81-92. Gilbert, Jacqueline and Ivancevich, John, ‘Valuing diversity: A tale of two organizations’, Academy of  Management Executive, vol. 14, Issue 1, 2000, pp. 93-1 05. Gray, Clifford and Larson, Eric Project Management: The Managerial Process (New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2005). Gunhan, Suat and Arditi, David, ‘Factors Affecting International Construction’, Journal of  construction engineering and management, vol. 131, Issue 4, 2005, pp. 273-277 Kirby, Susan and Richard, Orlando, ‘Impact of marketing work-place diversity on employee job involvement and organizational commitment’, Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 140, Issue 3, 2000, pp. 367-377. Kwak, Young and Smith, Brian, ‘Managing Risks in Mega Defense Acquisition Projects: Performance, Policy, and Opportunities’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 27, Issue 8, 2009, pp. 812-820. Ling, Florence and Hoi, Linda, ‘Risks faced by Singapore firms when undertaking construction projects in India’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 24, Issue 3, 2006, pp. 261-270. Pheng, Low, and Leong, Christopher, â⠂¬ËœCross-cultural project management for international construction in China’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 18, Issue 5, 2000, pp. 307-16. Schneider, Susan and Meyer, Anoud, ‘Interpreting and responding to strategic issues: The impact of national culture’, Strategic Management Journal, vol. 12, Issue 4, 2006, pp. 307-320. Yin, Robert, Case Study Research (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 2003). Footnotes 1 Sylvie, Chevrier, ‘Cross-cultural management in multinational project groups.’ , Journal of World Business, vol. 38, issue1, 2003, p. 141 2 Jacqueline, Gilbert and John Ivancevich, ‘Valuing diversity: A tale of two organizations’, Academy of Management Executive, vol. 14, Issue1, 2000, p. 99 3 Ping, Chen and David, Partington, ‘An interpretive comparison of Chinese and Western conceptions of relationships in construction project management work’, International Journal of Project Managemen t, vol. 22, Issue 3, 2004, p. 398 4 Susan, Schneider and Anoud, Meyer, ‘Interpreting and responding to strategic issues: The impact of national culture’, Strategic Management Journal, vol. 12, Issue 4, 2006, p. 307 5 Schneider and Meyer, p. 309 6 Clifford, Gray and Eric, Larson, Project Management: The Managerial Process, McGraw Hill Higher Education, New York, 2005, p. 92 7 Hossein, Dadfar and Peter, Gustavsson, ‘Competition by effective management of cultural diversity’, International Studies of Management and Organization, vol. 22, Issue 4, 1992, p. 87. 8 Gray and Larson, p. 312 9 Susan, Kirby and Orlando, Richard, ‘Impact of marketing work-place diversity on employee job involvement and organizational commitment’, Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 140, issue 3, 2000, p. 368. 10 Florence, Ling, and Linda, Hoi, ‘Risks faced by Singapore firms when undertaking construction projects in India. International Journal of Project Management, vol. 24, Issue 3, 2006, p. 268. 11 Ling and Hoi, p. 271 12 Young, Kwak and Brian, Smith, ‘Managing Risks in Mega Defense Acquisition Projects: Performance, Policy, and Opportunities’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 27, Issue 8, 2009, p. 815. 13 Kwak and Smith, p. 817 14 Ping, Chen, David, Partington, and Maoshan, Qiang, ‘Cross-Cultural Understanding of Construction Project Managers’ Conceptions of Their Work’, Journal of Construction and Engineering Management, vol. 135, Issue 6, 2004, p. 479. 15 Suat, Gunhan and David, Arditi, ‘Factors Affecting International Construction’, Journal of construction engineering and management, vol. 131, Issue 4, 2005, p. 273. 16 Low, Pheng and Christopher, Leong, ‘Cross-cultural project management for international construction in China’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 18, Issue 5, 2000, p. 313. 17 Pheng and Leong, p. 314 18 Gilad, Chen, Bradely, Kirkman, Kwanghyun, Kim, Crystal, Farh and Subrahmaniam, Tangirala, ‘When does cross-cultural motivation enhance expatriate effectiveness? A multilevel investigation of the moderating roles of subsidiary support and cultural distance’, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 53, Issue 2, 2009, p. 1114. 19 Neal, Ashkanasy, Charmine, Hartel and Catherine, Daus, ‘Diversity and emotion: the new frontiers inorganizational behaviour research’, Journal of Management, vol. 28, Issue 1, 2002, p. 308. 20 John, Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA, 2009, p. 145 21 Yin, p. 99 Cross Introduction In every part of the world, the business sector is streamlining its operations through diverse types of amalgamation approaches. Amalgamation is done in order to triumph over the many challenges but also harness opportunities created by globalization. The intensity of such operations has been witnessed in different major sectors of the economy in many countries of the world.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cross-Border Mergers Acquisitions in the Pharmaceutical Industry specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In particular, there have been relatively high rates of mergers and acquisitions among the pharmaceutical industries. This phenomenon is attributed to presence of subsidiaries of big multinational companies in many countries the entire world over. This paper investigates into literature written on acquisition and mergers with a special focus on the pharmaceutical industry. Acquisition and Mergers The term merger and acquisition are often applied synonymously; however, there is a slight difference in the meaning of the two terms. A merger takes place when two firms harmonize to go onward as a unitary corporation rather than remain disjointedly possessed and managed. When merging occurs, and in most occurrence between companies of the same size, their stocks are surrendered and the new company stock is issued in their place. On the other hand acquisition takes place when one firm takes over another and establishes itself as the new owner. In this case the target corporation ceases to exist legally, and the buyer’s stockpile continues to be traded, as noted by Hassan (2007, p.58). In addition, Hassan (2007) notes that almost all mergers tend to be between medium size firms and large sized firms. Cross-border mergers and acquisitions in the Pharmaceutical Industry There are numerous reasons that lead to the majority of mergers in pharmaceutical industries. In reference to most me rgers and acquisition in pharmaceutical industries in the United States of America, Kang Johansson (2000, p.29) observes that possession of recognized product in some pharmaceutical markets, well renowned market system and the market allotment are examples of motivations that has led to the boom in merger and acquisitions. The other Factors that motivate Cross-border mergers and acquisitions in the Pharmaceutical industry can be classified in two distinct categories (Kang Johansson, 2000). Kang Johansson (2000) further observe that while some of these factors are exogenous, others are autogenous.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Exogenous factors are those that surface within the company or those factors that the company can be able to handle or even influence (Kang Johansson, 2000). On the other hand, autogenous factors are those foregoing external issues, which ar e beyond the aptitude of the corporation to control or even to influence considerably (Kang Johansson, 2000). However, while they determine the attainability of a certain merger or acquisition, they do not explain why corporations want to merge. Antitrust is one of exogenous factors associated with government policies that can promote, retard or prohibit Cross-border mergers acquisitions in the pharmaceutical industry. In both the US and European Union, the antitrust regulators have largely been reasonably sympathetic to mergers and acquisition (Kang Johansson, 2000). They have realized that markets are universal and have acknowledged the divestitures, permits and business restriction to heal some of the problems as observed by (Kang Johansson, 2000, p.30). In addition, Kang Johansson (2000) note that the universal direction to private enterprise and privatization of state possessed corporation, has led to a notable rise in the number of cross-border merger and acquisitions. Moreov er, the different governments especially in developed countries such as those in North America and Western Europe have decided to take a back seat and leave the market to decide on the results of hostile bids. These bids appear to have opened the door and led to a significant increase in the number of cross-border mergers and acquisitions of various pharmaceutical firms in their countries (Kang Johansson, 2000). Another factor that has motivated the cross boarder merger and acquisition in the pharmaceutical industry is labor. In his own views, Kang (2001, p.71) notes that as long as the job security of workers is guaranteed and there is a vibrant job market, the resistance of employees of to mergers and acquisitions is minimal. Employee cooperation has made the whole process to be simplified and accessible. Going by autogenous factors, Kang (2001, pp.71-75) perceives that the traditional prime motivation for any merger is to gain and increase the market power. Similarly, the idea be hind the many cross-border merger and acquisition is to attain the ability to control a large share of the market, and if it would not have been for the government regulations, most corporations would be seeking to have total monopoly.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cross-Border Mergers Acquisitions in the Pharmaceutical Industry specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kang (2001) further observes that distributing the profit of an enhanced operating margin throughout diminution of working cost is another very important reason behind cross-border operations within the pharmaceutical corporations. The acquirer in often cases restructures towards bettering the acquired organization’s operations. Consequently, this leads to improving or increasing value for the shareholders of acquired company. Moreover, intra-industry consolidating acquirement provides opening to reduce costs (Kang Johansson, 2000). The need to mini mize the cost of developing new technologies is another factor that facilitates most cross-border acquisition. Following the state-of-the-art technological advancement required in pharmaceutical industries, the cost of coming up with such obligation may be a huge responsibility for a pharmaceutical firm with less operating margin to match. At this point, the need to merge with another firm of same size may emerge, in order to reduce the huge financial budget (Cantwell Santangelop 2006, p.21). Cantwell Santangelop (2006) observe that technological factors have influenced the growing merger and acquisition strategy in the pharmaceutical industries. Internationalization and integration have taken place in pharmaceutical manufacturing, through the amalgamation and acquisition taken on as a means of attaining cost savings and accelerating innovation in response to the first tempo of scientific changes in this segment (Cantwell Santangelop, 2006). Pharmaceutical industries have consequ ently undertaken mergers and acquisition consecutively to accumulate enough resources to fund researches and development of new drugs (Cantwell Santangelop, 2006).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Cantwell Santangelop (2006) point out that in order to overcome challenges of intimidation to their spirited positions; pharmaceutical corporations have pushed to get better research, promotion and allocation of their pharmaceutical products. Now, cross-border unions usually provide the much needed alternative of expanding the commercial property base and preserve of technical strength. Institutional stakeholders in pharmaceutical industries and other investment campaigners are known to have a considerable achievement in urging or if need be compelling corporations to reorganize their operations or seek a merger (Cassiman Colombo 2006, p.32). This is more often than not propelled by the desire in shareholders’ of such pharmaceutical firms to make the most of their worth. The improved aptitude by stakeholder to converse amongst themselves and put pressure on the board of executive has had a monumental impact (Cassiman Colombo 2006, p.32). In additional cases, shareholder de mands has been the momentum for growth through instances such as cross-border acquisitions intended to increase volume or expand product lines Impact of Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions on Performance of Pharmaceutical Industries Having looked at some factors that motivate Cross-border mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical Industry, the question most likely to arise would be to what degree the consolidation approach assisted them (pharmaceutical industries) to advance their situation. Mergers and acquisition are anticipated to change the performance of the amalgamating companies in a variety of ways. One of these ways is through an expansion in the level factors, where the merging firms are expected to increase the capacity of their production. In turn, increased production capacity helps reduce the unit cost of production per pharmaceutical product. In many instances, mergers and acquisitions are meant to give more powers to merging pharmaceutical firms in the market and this eventually present them with powers to increase their accomplishment which lead to high prices and in due course to high profits. In other cases, however, merging pharmaceutical firms may experience minimal performance, if obtained unprofitable firms and are not able acquire the anticipated synergies (Cantwell Santangelop, 2006, pp. 21-25) A close comparison of the merging and non merging firms will bring out a clearer picture of performance between the two diverse categories of consolidation approaches. A merging firm occurs only after making the primary merger or acquisition, and until that it would be a non merging corporation. Going by measures of affluence such as Gross profit margin and return on funds engaged, these ratios give the impression that merging incorporations are by far more profitable in comparison to the non-merging companies. Similarly, the research and development intensity of the merging corporations are significantly better compared to their non-mer ging counterparts. The elevated variability shown by the research and development of the merging industries unlike the non merging ones, indicate that only a few merging firms are capable of investing more on research study and growth (Beena, 2006, p.11). Other core determinants of supporting market expansion are the selling expenses, mostly the marketing cost relatively to promotion expenses (Beena, 2006). This is attributed to the fact that most pharmaceutical industries usually make advances to the prescribing doctors instead of approaching the patients, which compels them to incur expenses on advertising through sales legislative body. The author as well argues that the average commercial advertisements strength for merging corporations remained to some extent above the one of non-merging firms, which implies that merging firms could minimize their expenses on marketing costs, upon getting into a merger. The analysis on merger and acquisition proves that pharmaceutical companies reengaged in them, are able to distribute among themselves the market channel, which to a considerable extent minimizes their cost (Beena 2006, p. 20). These corporations have as well acquired various tactical marketing integrations that assist them to develop marketing synergies (Halibozek Kovacich 2005, p.49). In comparing the intensity associated with export and import, between the merging and non-merging conglomerate, Halibozek Kovacich (2005) observe that the merging companies have a high export and import strength. The high import concentration may be attributed to the pharmaceutical firms’ dependence on the importation in bulk of their pharmaceutical products such as the drugs (Halibozek Kovacich, 2005, p.52). Despite the fact that mergers and acquisitions are projected to augment the capacity exploitation of the merging pharmaceutical industries because of the expansionary explanation, capability utilization is inferior to that of the non-merging corporations thro ughout the post amalgamation period (Mueller, 1980, p. 4). According to Muller (1980, p.5), most of the pharmaceutical industries seeking mergers and acquisition, usually consider the possibility of cutting short peril and uncertainty. In this perspective, Muller (1980) argues that many firms believe that the more diversified a firm is, the higher the likelihood of obtaining a steady returns, hence a losses in one market may as well be offset by gains in another market. Many firms as a result of merger and acquisition are able to expand their production portfolio by coming up with new brands of products, which are added to more therapeutic groupings and thereby not only minimize risks but also spread out their market synergies. The synergies effects of cross-border merger and acquisition makes it possible for pharmaceutical corporations to deepen or scope products arrangement. Conclusion Liberalization of many pharmaceutical firms by majority of governments has enabled cross-border merger and acquisition, which in turn has provided new market opportunities. The fast tempo of scientific changes has acted as a major influence to cross-border amalgamation and acquisition through making it possible for pharmaceutical firm to deal with a growing groundbreaking complication and interrelatedness, which has enabled them to carry out widespread research and development on their products. Similarly, mergers and acquisitions have made it possible for pharmaceutical firms to look for more business and market in order to manage with cost raise. Cross-border merger and acquisitions have in addition influenced though differently on national economies, when considering developing and developed economies. Within national borders, merger and acquisitions of pharmaceutical industries can be used to enhance domestic development and growth, while in case of developed countries they may allow national governments to pursue improvement of guiding principles On whether the mergers an d acquisitions in the industry are good it is not easy to say. However, if these corporations are in a position to transfer a fraction of benefits gained through their enhanced performance due to consolidation to the customers, then the developments are welcome. The benefits can be passed to the customer in the form of reduced costs and a superior quality of drugs. Such benefits accruing to the customer would be a welcome development that would in turn lead to bigger market share command by firms. However, if amalgamation only leads to monopolistic tendencies, then it would be worthy of special attention, to safeguard the interest of the common person who cannot afford the hefty price of drugs. References Beena, S, 2008, Mergers and Acquisitions in the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry: Nature, Structure and Performance, Emerald Group Publishing, New Delhi. Cantwell, JA Santangelop, 2006, Mergers Acquisitions and the global strategies of Transnational Corporation, University of Readi ng Press, Reading. Cassiman, B Colombo, MG 2006, Mergers Acquisitions: The Innovation Impact‎, Edwar Elgar Publishing, Massachusetts. Halibozek, EP Kovacich, GD 2005, Mergers and Acquisitions Security: Corporate Restructuring and Security, Oxford University Press, London. Hassan, M 2007, â€Å"Do Mergers and Acquisitions Create Shareholder Wealth In The Pharmaceutical Industry?†International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Marketing, Vol. 1, pp.58 – 78, Fordham University Press, New York. Kang, NH 2001, New patterns of industrial globalization: Cross-border Mergers and Acquisition, OECD, London Kang, NH Johansson, S 2007, Cross-Border Mergers And Acquisitions: Their Role In Industrial Globalization, 8 (1), pp. 23- 59, OECD 2000 publishers, London Mueller, D 1980, â€Å"The Determinants and Effects of Mergers: An International  Comparison†, Cambridge University Press, MA.

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Mind Body Relationship In Human Person Philosophy Essay

Mind Body Relationship In Human Person Philosophy Essay The mind-body problem has been a much discussed issue in the Philosophy of Mind. All those who undertake any study in consciousness, necessarily need to touch upon this subject. One of the unsettled puzzles is about whether consciousness is part of material or mental realm. It has challenged the scientists as well as philosophers to look for some solutions. They have proposed several theories to address the issue. Among several theories dualism and physicalism were the most discussed. There are some crucial questions regarding mind-body problem: such as; how do they interact, whether the mind and body differ not only in degree and nature but also in kind? The arrival of neuroscience with its several scientific experiments has radically challenged the understanding of relationship between mind and body and forced us to rethink our positions about it. Thus, there is a renewed vigour in studying about consciousness in modern times and it has thrown open several other ways of settling th is issue. This chapter will briefly discuss on how different philosophers perceived the relationship between mind and body in a person and critically analyse various theories of dualism and physicalism in detail and present their difficulties. The concluding part of the chapter will show the need to go beyond dualism and physicalism with the help of neuroscience. We begin our discussion with mind-body relationship in a person. 1.1 Mind-Body Relationship in a Person For many centuries, we have been trying to understand the mind-body relationship in a person. The difficulty behind explaining the relationship between mind-body in a person is that s/he is a dynamic entity.  [1]  Thus, one is in a continued mode of knowing oneself. There are several thinkers who hold the view that a person is composed of body and mind. At the same time there are also some thinkers who oppose this idea. Now we shall discuss the views of some philosophers. There are several ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle who expressed their views on mind-body relationship in a person. For Plato, human being is composed of body and soul. Body is nothing but a prison house into which his/her soul has been locked. His understanding of person is different from our understanding of human being.  [2]  For Plato, person belongs to intelligible world and human being belongs to sensible world. Secondly person can be transformed whereas human being cannot be because human being belongs to physical level of being.  [3]  Thus he says that a person, the subject of interest, is not a human being but rather a soul, an entity distinct from that of human being.  [4]  Here we can see a clear-cut distinction of soul and body in Platos thinking. Aristotle, on the contrary, saw the mind-body relationship from a completely different angle. He says that a person is a composite not of body and soul but of prime matter and the human soul which as a substantial form.  [5]  He does not perceive the distinction between mind and body; instead he makes the distinction between matter and form. Therefore, Aristotle understands body and soul as not of two complete beings in conflict with each other but complimenting each other because matter and form are inseparable in a primary substance. There are also modern philosophers like Hegel, Immanuel Kant and John Locke who understand the mind-body relationship quite differently. For Hegel, an individual is part of the larger life of the Mind. He says that, Mind or spirit, passes through dialectical stages of evolution, revealing itself as subjective mind, objective mind and absolute mind. The subjective mind expresses itself as soul, consciousness and spirit.  [6]  From the above statements it is very clear that he gives importance to mind alone. He has absorbed totally the body into mind; for he says, It (mind) embodies itself, creates a body for itself, and becomes a particular, individual soul.  [7]  Therefore what truly exists for him is mind and not body. However Immanuel Kant speaks about metaphysical dualism rather than substance dualism of the person. He sees person as a Transcendental Self because there is a level of self-awareness that is over and above the categories of normal philosophies. Human being is alone a rational being who has a will and a free choice of action. So Kant postulates person as a transcendental free being, an idea that the inner self is not bound by the laws of nature.  [8]  However, John Locke, being a modern philosopher understands human person as that of ancient philosophers. For him mind is the real person and body is only a possession.  [9]  He separates mind from body and shows that body is only a material reality. He says that, Every man has a property in his own person.   This no Body has any Right to but himself.  [10]  For him mind is the real person and in the real person the body aspect is integrated totally into it.  [11]   The philosophers have changed their focus in the recent years. They give more stress on the purpose of human life. They ask; what does it mean to be a human person? However, with the growing interest in neuroscience, the ontological question bounced back with new a quest. One of the forerunners and pioneers of this movement is Philip Clayton who brought back the same question with a new focus. Now we shall discus the extreme positions of mind-body relationship and their solutions. 1.2 Extreme Positions The Mind-Body relationship has been an unsettled question both for science and philosophy. It has been a herculean task for both scientists and philosophers, who were greatly involved in unlocking the issue of the relationship between mind and body. There are two sets of opposing ideologies proposed; namely dualism and physicalism. Most of the philosophers are divided on their opinions hence this issue seeks our utmost attentions. Here we shall examine these two positions in detail and see why we need to go beyond these divisions. As part of this session, 1.3 deals with substance dualism and property dualism and 1.4 tries to examine the critical appraisal of the mind body relationship. The second part begins in 1.5 which deals with physicalism. Let us begin with dualism. 1.3 Dualism Dualism simply means a condition of being double. It comes from the Latin word duo meaning two which denotes a state of two parts.  [12]  It was originally coined to highlight the co-eternal binary position; for example good and evil, body and mind, mental and material, dark and light etc. It is supported by several arguments.  [13]  In philosophy it is a world view that the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities, such as body and mind, the condition of being double or duality.  [14]  From the point of theology, it speaks about that human being having two basic natures, the physical and spiritual. There are two kinds of dualism- substance dualism and property dualism. 1.3.1 Substance Dualism The substance dualism sees mind and body as two distinct and separate substances.  [15]  Several philosophers like Plato, Thomas Aquinas and Renà © Descartes too held a similar view. They see mind as something that is diametrically opposing body. The attribute of body is extension but at the same time they see that the body is passive; whereas the mind is thinking, active and free. The two substances are absolutely distinct and mind is without extension. Those who hold dualism say that they have a clear and distinct idea of themselves in so far as they are only a thinking and un-extended thing.  [16]  The distinction between body as material and mind as immaterial substance becomes a crucial point of discussion in substance dualism because they differ not only in kind but also in nature and degree. However it is a compelling concept because it gives us a hope of personal survival after death and also many religions hold this theory very dear to them.  [17]  We can see th is distinction in Indian philosophy too. The Sankhaya philosophy holds that there are two entities; namely Purusha  [18]  and Prakrti  [19]  which are the two constitutive elements of the world. However dualism is more clearly and intelligibly spelled by the western thinkers. Now we shall discuss briefly about two predominant philosophers: Plato, from the ancient schools and Renà © Descartes, from the modern thinkers, who represent the rest of the dualistic thinkers of their time. 1.3.1.1 Platonic Dualism Platonic Dualism can be seen very clear in Phaedo, one of his dialogues. In the dialogue, Plato accepts the two ultimate principles; namely body and mind. Here his dualism is metaphysical in nature because he deals with immortality of mind or soul.  [20]  He calls mind as soul.  [21]  For him, the mind is immortal and body is mortal.  [22]  The mind is the one which differentiates the living from the dead. He sees the body as a prison in which the soul is confined. In the imprisoned life, the mind is compelled to investigate the truth by means of the organs of perception of the body. Forms are universals and represent the essences of sensible particulars. Plato says that we do not see reality as a whole. We perceive equal things, but not equality itself. We perceive beautiful things but not beauty itself. To have insights into the pure essences of things, the mind must struggle to disassociate itself from the body as far as possible and turn its attention towards the cont emplation of not only to intelligible things but also to invisible things. Plato defines death as the separation of soul and body, and the state of being dead as state in which soul and body exist separately from one another.  [23]  Thus for Plato, the dualism of mind and body are opposite in nature. He establishes the distinction of mind and body by establishing the distinction between the immortality of mind and mortality of body. He proves the immortality of soul through Argument from Opposites, Argument from Recollection and the Argument from Affinity.  [24]  These three arguments are keys to establish his dualism. Plato defends his immortality of soul from the Argument from Opposites. He says that things that have an opposite come to be from their opposite. For example, if something comes to be taller, it must come to be taller from having been shorter; if something comes to be heavier, it must come to be so by first having been lighter. These processes can go in either direction. Similarly he says that dying comes from living, living must come from dying. Thus, we must come to life again after we die. During the interim between death and rebirth the soul exists apart from the body and has the opportunity to glimpse the Forms unmingled with matter in their pure and undiluted fullness. Thus the cycle of life goes on. The second defence for his immortality of soul is the Argument from Recollection. For Plato, soul must exist prior to birth because we can recollect things that could not have been learned in this life. According to Plato, we recognize unequal things and strive for equality. To notice inequality, we must comprehend what equality is. In order to know what equality is, we must have the prior knowledge so that we can understand the form of equality. Hence, the soul must have existed prior to birth to the form of equality.  [25]   The third defence for his immortality of soul is the Argument from Affinity. Plato claims that composite things are more liable to be destroyed than things that are simple. The forms  [26]  are true unities and therefore least likely ever to be annihilated. Further Plato says that invisible things such as forms are not apt to be disintegrated, whereas visible things are susceptible to decay and corruption. Since the body is visible and composite, it is subjected to decomposition. As against to body, the soul is invisible part of forms and purifies itself by having no more association with the body than necessary. Since the invisible things are the durable things, the soul, being invisible, must outlast the body. Further, soul becomes form-like immortal and survives the death of the body.  [27]  Through these three arguments Plato proves the immortality of soul or mind whereby he makes the distinction between body and mind; thus he proves the dualism. However Platos arguments are highly challenged even by his own disciple Aristotle. Firstly, the Argument from Opposites applies only to things that have an opposite and, as Aristotle notes, substances have no contraries.  [28]  Further, even if life comes from what is itself not alive, it does not follow that the living human comes from the union of a dead (i.e. separated) soul and a body. The principle that everything comes to be from its opposite via a two-directional process cannot hold up to critical scrutiny. Secondly, one becomes older from having been younger, there is no corresponding reverse process leading the older to become younger. If aging is a uni-directional process, perhaps dying is as well. The Arguments from Recollection and Affinity, on the other hand, presuppose the existence of forms and are therefore no more secure than the forms themselves. Thus these criticisms show that we cannot simply take the prior existence of soul as it is true. Therefore Platos und erstanding is more of metaphysical and bit of vague because there are several unanswered questions like things which have two different natures interact. At the same time we acknowledge, he has brought certain clarity in understanding dualism with clear proofs. Now we shall discuss the dualism proposed by Descartes. 1.3.1.2 Cartesian Dualism. Renà © Descartes is one of the modern Philosophers who has extensively dealt with dualism. For Descartes, body and mind are distinct substances and the immaterial mind is somehow associated with the material body.  [29]  Substance dualism gets more predominance in Cartesian dualism.  [30]  He says substance dualism goes along with the view that the identity of a person over time is constituted by the identity overtime of this substance, and in versions of the doctrine that countenance life after death, it is survival of this substance, often called soul perhaps along with certain memory and psychological continuities, that constitutes the survival of the person.  [31]  The idea that there is a fundamental difference in kind between the mind and body can be spelled out in two broadly different ways.  [32]  Descartes held that minds and bodies are substances of distinct kind that, in the case of living human beings, happen to be intimately related.  [33]  The disti nction between the body and mind is: the body is spacial, public and has material qualities; and mind is non-spacial, private and has distinctively mental qualities. By spacial, he means that it occupies some space and time for its existence. It is public which means it is visible and we can experience it. When he says that the body has material qualities, he means that it has several qualities by which the substance expresses itself and reveals it to others and through which we come to know the things.  [34]  Firstly, in contrast to body, the mind occupies no space therefore it can be anywhere at any time. In short it is beyond space and time. Secondly it possesses mental qualities of life feeling, perceiving, experience joys and sorrows of life etc. Thirdly the mind is private because we cannot perceive it.  [35]  Descartes believes that the world is made up of substances. A substance is not a thing as we think like water or coal, or paint. For Descartes substance is an in dividual thing or an entity. He says that substances are different; they are complex. He gives importance to human being and his/her rationality. He claimed that, human rationality could not be a physical process.  [36]   The dualism of Descartes sounds good; however, there are certain conceptual difficulties and seemingly insurmountable problems. One of the crucial issues is the interaction of mind-body which is totally opposing each other in nature and kind. If minds are as distinct from material things as Descartes claims, it seems at least paradoxical: how can then the two sorts of substances interact. In this case property dualism seems to solve some of the problems which substance dualism cannot. 1.3.2 Property Dualism Property dualism maintains that mind is not only one kind of physical substance, having physical or behavioral-material-functional properties but also nonphysical behaviorally-materially-functionally in-eliminable and irreducible properties.  [37]  The advantage of property dualism over substance dualism is that it avoids the casual interaction problem because this theory has no need to countenance causal interaction between material and immaterial or spatial and non-spatial substance, since it admits only that there is only material substance.  [38]  It also need not appeal to Gods divine abilities in order to account for mind-body interaction or the objectivity of the perceived world. It has an edge over materialism that it provides for the intuitive distinction between body and mind by positing a difference in their properties, and especially in the metaphysical categories of their properties. Property dualism holds that without both properties, we cannot satisfactorily ex plain the psychological phenomena. The in-eliminable and irreducible properties are said to be essential to mind because they are responsible for experience, feeling, object directionality and intentionality of psychological states.  [39]  This property dualism could be understood in three ways; namely Theory of Attribute, Anomalous Monism and Non-reductive materialism. 1.3.2.1 Theory of Attribute The first way of understanding the property dualism is through Spinozas theory of attribute. Attributes are part of Spinozas metaphysics.  [40]  For Spinoza God is the only Substance since Gods essence involves existence. He says that, God exists and, moreover, only God can fulfill the conditions for substance, therefore there can be only one substance.  [41]  It is a mistake to assert that mind and body as substances because they are not fully self-subsistent, but are dependent modes or manifestations of God. For him, A true substance must be that which contains within itself, as part of its essence, the complete explanation of its nature and existence.  [42]  This God has infinite attributes. But human being can know only two attributes; they are namely thought and extension. By attribute what Spinoza understands is that the intellect perceives substance as constituting its essence. For him, the attribute of thought is attached to mind and extension to the body. He says that the object of idea constituting the human mind is the body which is certain mode of extension. He says that Therefore, the minds power of understanding extends only as far as that which this idea of the body contains within itself, or which follows there from. Now this idea of the body involves and expresses no other attributes of God than extension and thought.  [43]  This attribute enables us to understand and talk about an extended world and a thinking world in terms of which we understand bodies and minds. He partly invented this theory of attribute for the sake of solving an outstanding question raised by Descartes philosophy of mind. If the mind is, or belongs to, a separate substance from that of the body, then how does the body-mind interact? In order to avoid the problem, Spinoza considered that mind and body is one and the same thing under the attribute of extension and thought. Though the Cartesian notion of dualism was logical, it had constant problems. It coul d not substantially explain the relationship between substance constructed as individual and substance constructed as matter or stuff. But Spinozas explanation came very close to a satisfactory theory.  [44]   1.3.2.2 Anomalous Monism Anomalous monism is proposed by Donald Davidson, who is an American pragmatist. Anomalous monism is a philosophical thesis about the mind- body relationship. This theory has twofold divisions; namely mental and physical.  [45]  It states that mental events are identical with physical events. Events are causes in virtue of the properties that they instantiate, unless mental properties and physical properties are also identified, questions about the causal redundancy of the mental reappear at the level of properties.  [46]  But Davidson says that the mental events are anomalous, that is to say these mental events are not regulated by strict physical laws. Hence, he proposed an identity theory of mind without the reductive bridge laws associated with the type-identity theory. He understands the ontological nature of the relationship of mental events especially propositional attitudes with physical actions. Davidson accepts that there is ontology of events where events, which may seem to be opposed to objects or states of affairs, are the fundamental, irreducible entities of the mental and physical universe. He also believes that event-individuation must be done on the basis of causal powers. He further argues in favour of the individualization of events on the basis of spatio-temporal localization. According to this view, all events are caused by and cause other events and for him this is the defining characteristics of what an event is. The important aspect of Davidsons ontology of events for anomalous monism is that an event has an indefinite number of properties or aspects. He says that a very simple physical action like switching on a light has a large variety of mental events especially reasoning; for example recognizing the need of light, making a choice to switch on etc. For Davidson, a particular reason causes a particular action. Thus it explains that reasons are causes and actions are effects of the causal efficacy of the mental events.  [47]   However there are also people who are highly critical about it. One of the criticisms about the anomalous monism is whether mental events are ever causes of physical events in virtue of their mental properties. Gibb says that If the mental properties of a mental event do make a causal difference, then unless one admits systematic causal over determination, this is to violate the causal closure principle, for according to it an events physical properties are sufficient for the causal effects that event has within the physical domain.  [48]  It is otherwise the mental properties of an event make no causal difference to the physical effects that the event has, then mental properties have the status of epiphenomena. He observes that Consequently, to identify mental events with physical events whilst distinguishing mental properties from physical properties are not to remove but merely to relocate the problem of mental causation.  [49]  For this reason, the non-reductive physicali st who identifies token mental events with physical events but maintains a property dualism can plausibly be accused of property epiphenomenalism. Secondly a strict law cannot be formulated in the same terms as the causal claim because causally related events must have descriptions under which they instantiate a strict law. Similarly, the causal claim and the relevant covering law cannot be formulated in purely mental terms because any mental event that causes a physical event must be characterizable in physical terms and therefore be physical. Hence, mental events are physical events. On the other hand, as there are no strict psychophysical laws that would support the reduction of mental concepts to physical concepts, anomalous monism leads to the rejection of any conceptual reduction.  [50]   1.3.2.3 Non-reductive Materialism Non-reductive materialism represents the current orthodoxy in Western Philosophy thinking about the ontological status of the mind. The proponents of non-reductive materialism hold that the mental is ontologically part of the material world; yet, mental properties are causally efficacious without being reducible to physical properties.  [51]  Even though the mind itself is really physical, our mentalist explanatory scheme is not reducible to physics but is instead autonomous. They hold both irreducibility of the mind as well physical nature of the mind as realism. They are also arguing that they are fundamentally unstable combination. The non-reductionist distinguishes mental kinds from physical kinds, where the mental includes sensation and thought, and the physical is roughly the domain of the physical sciences, including neurophysiology. But those who oppose it say that the whole question of explanatory autonomy became a topical philosophical issue which threatened the reducti onism because there was a general acceptance of materialist theories. It was broadly a metaphysical doctrine. It would seem to follow that all phenomena are susceptible to physical explanation, and if this is true then what can the ontological status be of those concepts, categories and theories which fall outside the domain of the physical sciences?  [52]  Then the non-reductive materialist may have to give up all pretense of having a realist view of mental terms, giving up all talk of real but non-physical mental properties. It seems that you cannot combine Physicalism with realism about the mental and at the same time hold out for the autonomy of the mental. However non-reductive materialism could be still seen as fundamentally a stable position. 1.4 An Appraisal of Mind-Body Relations Though Descartes argues for the mind-body dualism,  [53]  the sort of dualism for which he argues, entails certain conceptual difficulties and seemingly insuperable problems. The main difficulty with mental activity is that, as Descartes understands them, how do the mind and matter interact. If minds are as distinct from material things as Descartes claims, it seems at least paradoxical that the two sorts of substances should interact. The question of the relation between the mental and the physical can be posed equivalently as about mental and ph